Publication - Content

Content for the publication


- I decided to narrow down the focus of the content and simplify the subject so it now will give just a brief introduction to signs, the theories of Saussure, Peirce and Barthes, explain the theories of denotation and connotation, give an extract of Barthes's essay as an example and give examples of denotation and connotation being used (yet to decide on how to do this)


- choosing content from different books/websites:

- After picking out content from different sources sentence by sentence, and combining it together so it can be read coherently, this is the selected content for the publication:



What is a theory?

The word ‘theory’ comes from the Greek word ‘theorema’ meaning to view, to observe or to reflect. The dictionary defines theory as an explanation or system of anything: an exposition of the abstract principles of either a science or an art. Theory is a speculation on something rather than a practice.

The theories which we apply to graphic design and visual communication are taken from a study of signs known in Europe as semiology and in the USA as semiotics.

This new science was proposed in the early 1900s by Ferdinand de Saussure (1857 - 1913), a Swiss professor of linguistics. At around the same time an American philosopher called Charles Sanders Peirce (1839 - 1914) was developing a parallel study of signs which he called semiotics. Although they were working independently there were a number of fundamental similarities in both of their studies. Both Saussure and Peirce saw the sign as central to their study of semiotics. Both were primarily concerned with structural models of the sign which concentrated on the relationships between the components of the sign. For both Saussure and Peirce it is this relationship between the components of the sign that enables us to turn signals, in whatever form they appear, into a message which we can understand.

There are three main areas which form what we understand as semiotics: the signs themselves, the way they are organised into systems and the context in which they appear.

The underlying principles which have become the cornerstone of modern semiotics were first heard by students of Saussure in a course in linguistics at the University of Geneva between 1906 and 1911. Saussure died in 1913 without publishing his theories and it was not until 1915 that the work was published by his students as the ‘Cours de linguistique generale’ (Course in General Linguistics). Prior to this the study of language (linguistics) largely concerned itself with historical usage of languages. In the search for the soure of meaning linguists looked to the origins of language. Linguists supposed that if meaning could be found in language then the nature of thought itself could be found by looking at the origins of language. In its early stages linguistics was an attempt to explain signs by imagining them as descriptions of a series of gestures, actions and sensations.

This developed into a comparative study of the forms of words in different languages and their evolution. At this stage linguists were concerned with the structure of language in its own right with no distinct relation to the mind.

Saussure was unhappy with the way linguists were approaching language as he felt they had not determined the nature of what they were studying. As a result Saussure proposed an entirely different way of looking at language as a system of signs. If we could understand how the system of language worked then this may lead us to how meaning is formed.

Communication relies on shared knowledge and it is through signs that we are able to communicate. Signs might be words, pictures, gestures, indeed any form of signifying material that communicates meaning.

Saussure outlined a system of representation. In this system a letter, for example the letter ‘d’ can represent a sound. A collection of letters (a word) is used to represent an object. Each of these examples contain the two fundamental elements which make up a sign. The ‘Signifier’ and the ‘Signified’. A word became known as a signifier and the object it represented became the signified. A sign is produced when these two elements are brought together.
a 'signifier' (signifiant) - the form which the sign takes; and
the 'signified' (signifié) - the concept it represents.

The sign is the whole that results from the association of the signifier with the signified.

Anything can be a sign as long as someone interprets it as 'signifying' something - referring to or standing for something other than itself. We interpret things as signs largely unconsciously by relating them to familiar systems of conventions. It is this meaningful use of signs which is at the heart of the concerns of semiotics.

According to Saussure language is constructed from a small set of units call phonemes. These are the sounds which we use in a variety of combinations to construct words. These noises can only be judged as language when they attempt to communicate an idea. To do this they must be part of a system of signs. The meaning of the individual units (the phonemes( which make up language has been sacrificed in order to give a limitless number of meanings on a higher level as they were reassembled to form words. The word ‘dog’ for example has three phonemes: d, o and g. In written form the letters d, o and g represent the sounds.

In different languages the collection of phonemes which make up the signifier is different. In English speaking countries the object you are reading from is called a ‘book’ whereas in French it is ‘livre’, in Spanish ‘libro’ and in German it would be ‘buch’. What this shows us is that the relationship between the signifier ‘book’ and the thing signified is a completely arbitrary one. Neither the sounds nor their written form bears any relation to the thing itself. With few exceptions any similarity is accidental. Just as the letter ‘b’ bears no relation to the sound we associate with it then also the word used to describe a book bears no relation to the object it represents. Just as there is nothing book-like in the word ‘book’, the word ‘dog’ does not bite, the word ‘gun’ cannot kill you and the word ‘pipe’ does not resemble the object used to smoke tobacco. This divorce between meaning and form is called ‘duality’.

All that is necessary for any language to exist is an agreement amongst a group of people that one thing will stand for another.

Charles Sanders Peirce is the philosopher who is recognised as the founder of the American tradition of semiotics. Whereas Saussure was primarily interested in language, Peirce was more interested in how we make sense of the world around us. Peirce’s model for the sign deals wiht the sign itself, the user of the sign and the external reality - the object referred to by the sign. In this model, the sign is very similar to Saussure’s signifier. This is the physical evidence of the sign. This can be for example a word, a photograph, a painting or a sound. Saussure’s signified becomes the interpretant in Peirce’s model. This is not merely the user of the sign but a mental concept of the sign which is based on the user’s cultural experience of the sign. The interpretant is not fixed. It does not have a single definable meaning, but its meaning can vary depending on the reader of the sign. The emotional response to the word ‘book’ vary depending on the reader’s experience of books. For some it may be a comforting and affectionate response based on a lifetime of reading and escape through literature, where for others it may be a suspicious and defensive response based on the book as an instrument of official institutions.

Both Saussure and Peirce agreed that in order to understand how we extract meaning from a sign we need to understand the structure of signs.

Peirce defined three categories of signs; icon, index and symbol.

Icon - this resembles the sign. A photograph of someone could be described as an iconic sign in that it resembles physically the thing that it represents. It is also possible to have iconic words where the sound resembles the thing it represents. Onomatopoeic words like ‘bang’ or ‘woof’ could be described as iconic language.

Index - there is a direct link between the sign and the object. In this category smoke is an index of fire and a tail is an index of a dog. Traffic signs in the street are index signs as they have a direct link to the physical reality of where they are placed such as at a junction of at the brow of a hill.

Symbol - these signs have no logical connection between the sign and what it means. They rely exclusively on the reader having learnt the connection between the sign and its meaning. The red cross is a symbol which we recognise to mean ‘aid’. Flags are symbols which represent territories or organisations. The letters of the alphabet are symbolic signs whose meaning we have learnt.

As a linguist Saussure was not interested in index signs, he was primarily concerned with words. Saussure categorised signs in two ways which are very similar to the categories used by Peirce:

Iconic - these are the same as Peirce’s icons, they resemble the thing they represent.

Arbitrary - these are the same as Peirce’s symbols. The relationship between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary. It functions through agreed rules.

Denotation and Connotation

In Europe it was Roland Barthes a follower of Saussure’s who took the theoretical debate forward. In the 1960s Barthes developed Saussure’s ideas so that we could consider the part played by the reader in the exchange between themselves and the content.

For Barthes the science of the signs takes in much more than the construction of words and their representations. Semiology takes in any system of signs whatever the content or limits of the system. Images, sounds, gestures and objects are all part of systems which have semiotic meaning.

Barthes saw that there was a significant role to be played by the reader in the process of reading meaning. To do this he applies linguistic concepts to other visual concepts which carry meaning.

Barthes saw signs as potentially operating at the two levels of denotation and connotation.

'Denotation' tends to be described as the definitional, 'literal', 'obvious' or 'commonsense' meaning of a sign. In the case of linguistic signs, the denotative meaning is what the dictionary attempts to provide.

The term 'connotation' is used to refer to the socio-cultural and 'personal' associations (ideological, emotional etc.) of the sign. These are typically related to the interpreter's class, age, gender, ethnicity and so on.

At the denotative level the sign operates at a very literal level, for example, a photograph of a dog can represent at a simple level, the four legged creature we are generally familiar with.

At the connotative level, meanings are potentially expanded thus the same photograph of the dog may not just mean four legged creature, but also, loyalty, companionship, etc..

In the following extract from his essay 'Rhetoric of the Image', Roland Barthes demonstrates the subtlety and power of connotation in the context of advertising.

Here we have a Panzani advertisement: some packets of pasta, a tin, a sachet, some tomatoes, onions, peppers, a mushroom, all emerging from a half-open string bag, in yellows and greens on a red background. Let us try to 'skim off' the different messages it contains.

The image immediately yields a first message, whose substance is linguistic; its supports are the caption, which is marginal, and the labels, these being inserted into the natural disposition of the scene, 'en abyme'. The code from which this message has been taken is none other than that of the French language; the only knowledge required to decipher it is a knowledge of writing and of French. In fact, this message can itself be further broken down, for the sign Panzani gives not simply the name of the firm but also, by its assonance, a additional signified, that of 'Italianicity'. The linguistic message is therefore twofold (at least in this particular image): denotational and connotational. Since, however, we have here only a single typical sign, namely that of articulated (written) language, it will be counted as one message.

Putting aside the linguistic message, we are left with the pure image (even if the labels are part of it, anecdotally). This image straightaway provides a series of discontinuous signs. First (the order is unimportant as these signs are not linear), the idea that what we have in the scene represented is a return from the market. A signified which itself implies two euphoric values: that of the freshness of the products and that of the essentially domestic preparation for which they are destined. Its signifier is the half-open bag which lets the provisions spill out over the table, 'unpacked'. To read this first sign requires only a knowledge which is in some sort implanted as part of the habits of a very widespread culture where 'shopping around for oneself' is opposed to the hasty stocking up (preserves, refrigerators) of a more 'mechanical' civilization. A second sign is more or less equally evident; its signifier is the bringing together of the tomato, the pepper and the tricoloured hues (yellow, green, red) of the poster; its signified is Italy, or rather Italianicity. This sign stands in a relation of redundancy with the connoted sign of the linguistic message (the Italian assonance of the name Panzani) and the knowledge it draws upon is already more particular; it is a specifically 'French' knowledge (an Italian would barely perceive the connotation of the name, no more probably than he would the Italianicity of tomato and pepper), based on a familiarity with certain tourist stereotypes. Continuing to explore the image (which is not to say that it is not entirely clear at the first glance), there is no difficulty in discovering at least two other signs: in the first, the serried collection of different objects transmits the idea of a total culinary service, on the one hand as though Panzani furnished everything necessary for a carefully balanced dish and on the other as though the concentrate in the tin were equivalent to the natural produce surrounding it; in the other sign, the composition of the image, evoking the memory of innumerable alimentary paintings, sends us to an aesthetic signified: the 'nature morte' or, as it is better expressed in other languages, the 'still life'; the knowledge on which this sign depends is heavily cultural.
Roland Barthes ‘The Rhetoric of the Image’

‘How does meaning get into the image? Where does it end? And if it ends, what is there beyond!’
Roland Barthes ‘The Rhetoric of the Image ‘ in Image-Music-Text 1977 p.32